diff --git a/linux/random.subx b/linux/apps/random.subx
similarity index 95%
rename from linux/random.subx
rename to linux/apps/random.subx
index d7bc03ac..4b770d8f 100644
--- a/linux/random.subx
+++ b/linux/apps/random.subx
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Repeatedly read 32-bit numbers from /dev/random, print them to stdout.
 #
 # To run:
-#   $ bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx random.subx -o random
-#   $ bootstrap/bootstrap run random
+#   $ ./translate_subx [01]*.subx apps/random.subx
+#   $ ./a.elf
 
 == code 0x09000000
 #   instruction                     effective address                                                   register    displacement    immediate
diff --git a/linux/test_apps b/linux/test_apps
index 057e10df..9dab3e41 100755
--- a/linux/test_apps
+++ b/linux/test_apps
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ echo "== translating using the bootstrap C++ translator"
 # example programs
 
 echo ex1
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex1.subx  -o ex1
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex1.subx  -o ex1
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex1  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 42  # life, the universe and everything
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex1.subx  -o ex1
 }
 
 echo ex2
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex2.subx  -o ex2
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex2.subx  -o ex2
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex2  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 7  # 3 + 4
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex2.subx  -o ex2
 }
 
 echo ex3
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex3.subx  -o ex3
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex3.subx  -o ex3
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex3  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55  # 1 + 2 + ... + 10
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex3.subx  -o ex3
 }
 
 echo ex4
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex4.subx  -o ex4
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex4.subx  -o ex4
 {
   echo a | bootstrap/bootstrap run ex4 >ex4.out  ||  true
   test `cat ex4.out` = 'a'
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex4.subx  -o ex4
 }
 
 echo ex5
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex5.subx  -o ex5
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex5.subx  -o ex5
 {
   echo a | bootstrap/bootstrap run ex5 >ex5.out  ||  true
   test `cat ex5.out` = 'a'
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex5.subx  -o ex5
 }
 
 echo ex6
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex6.subx  -o ex6
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex6.subx  -o ex6
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex6 >ex6.out  ||  true
   test "`cat ex6.out`" = 'Hello world!'
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex6.subx  -o ex6
 }
 
 echo ex7
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex7.subx  -o ex7
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex7.subx  -o ex7
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex7  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 97  # 'a'
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex7.subx  -o ex7
 }
 
 echo ex8
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex8.subx  -o ex8
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex8.subx  -o ex8
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex8 abcd  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 4  # length('abcd')
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex8.subx  -o ex8
 }
 
 echo ex9
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex9.subx  -o ex9
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex9.subx  -o ex9
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex9 z x  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 2  # 'z' - 'x'
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex9.subx  -o ex9
 }
 
 echo ex10
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex10.subx  -o ex10
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex10.subx  -o ex10
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex10 abc abc  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 1  # equal
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex10.subx  -o ex10
 }
 
 echo ex11
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex11.subx  -o ex11
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex11.subx  -o ex11
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex11
   echo
@@ -151,13 +151,13 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex11.subx  -o ex11
 }
 
 echo ex12
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex12.subx  -o ex12
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex12.subx  -o ex12
 bootstrap/bootstrap run ex12  # final byte of mmap'd address is well-nigh guaranteed to be 0
 chmod +x ex12
 ./ex12
 
 echo ex13
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex13.subx  -o ex13
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex13.subx  -o ex13
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex13  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 1  # 3 == 3
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex13.subx  -o ex13
 # Larger apps that use the standard library.
 
 echo factorial
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx factorial.subx  -o factorial
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx apps/factorial.subx  -o factorial
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run factorial  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 120  # factorial(5)
@@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx factorial.subx  -o factorial
 }
 
 echo random
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx random.subx  -o random
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx apps/random.subx  -o random
 # don't run
 
 # Phases of the self-hosted SubX translator.
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ echo "== translating using the self-hosted translator"
 for n in `seq 1 12`
 do
   echo ex$n
-  ./translate_subx 000init.subx ex$n.subx
+  ./translate_subx 000init.subx apps/ex$n.subx
   diff ex$n a.elf
 done
 
@@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ done
 for app in factorial
 do
   echo $app
-  ./translate_subx [01]*.subx $app.subx
+  ./translate_subx [01]*.subx apps/$app.subx
   diff $app a.elf
 done
 
@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ diff mu a.elf
 # Mu programs
 
 echo ex1.mu
-./translate ex1.mu
+./translate apps/ex1.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 42  # life, the universe and everything
@@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ echo ex1.mu
 }
 
 echo ex2.mu
-./translate ex2.mu
+./translate apps/ex2.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 7
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ echo ex2.mu
 }
 
 echo ex3.mu
-./translate ex3.mu
+./translate apps/ex3.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55
@@ -345,7 +345,7 @@ echo ex3.mu
 }
 
 echo ex3.2.mu
-./translate ex3.2.mu
+./translate apps/ex3.2.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55
@@ -356,7 +356,7 @@ echo ex3.2.mu
 }
 
 echo factorial.mu
-./translate factorial.mu
+./translate apps/factorial.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 120
diff --git a/linux/test_apps_emulated b/linux/test_apps_emulated
index 844dee82..b46a9b0f 100755
--- a/linux/test_apps_emulated
+++ b/linux/test_apps_emulated
@@ -18,70 +18,70 @@ echo "== translating using the bootstrap C++ translator"
 # example programs
 
 echo ex1
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex1.subx  -o ex1
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex1.subx  -o ex1
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex1  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 42  # life, the universe and everything
 }
 
 echo ex2
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex2.subx  -o ex2
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex2.subx  -o ex2
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex2  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 7  # 3 + 4
 }
 
 echo ex3
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex3.subx  -o ex3
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex3.subx  -o ex3
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex3  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55  # 1 + 2 + ... + 10
 }
 
 echo ex4
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex4.subx  -o ex4
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex4.subx  -o ex4
 {
   echo a | bootstrap/bootstrap run ex4 >ex4.out  ||  true
   test `cat ex4.out` = 'a'
 }
 
 echo ex5
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex5.subx  -o ex5
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex5.subx  -o ex5
 {
   echo a | bootstrap/bootstrap run ex5 >ex5.out  ||  true
   test `cat ex5.out` = 'a'
 }
 
 echo ex6
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex6.subx  -o ex6
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex6.subx  -o ex6
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex6 >ex6.out  ||  true
   test "`cat ex6.out`" = 'Hello world!'
 }
 
 echo ex7
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex7.subx  -o ex7
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex7.subx  -o ex7
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex7  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 97  # 'a'
 }
 
 echo ex8
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex8.subx  -o ex8
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex8.subx  -o ex8
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex8 abcd  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 4  # length('abcd')
 }
 
 echo ex9
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex9.subx  -o ex9
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex9.subx  -o ex9
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex9 z x  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 2  # 'z' - 'x'
 }
 
 echo ex10
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex10.subx  -o ex10
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex10.subx  -o ex10
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex10 abc abc  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 1  # equal
@@ -89,18 +89,18 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex10.subx  -o ex10
 }
 
 echo ex11
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex11.subx  -o ex11
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex11.subx  -o ex11
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex11
   echo
 }
 
 echo ex12
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex12.subx  -o ex12
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex12.subx  -o ex12
 bootstrap/bootstrap run ex12  # final byte of mmap'd address is well-nigh guaranteed to be 0
 
 echo ex13
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex13.subx  -o ex13
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx apps/ex13.subx  -o ex13
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run ex13  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 1  # 3 == 3
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate 000init.subx ex13.subx  -o ex13
 # Larger apps that use the standard library.
 
 echo factorial
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx factorial.subx  -o factorial
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx apps/factorial.subx  -o factorial
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run factorial  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 120  # factorial(5)
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx factorial.subx  -o factorial
 }
 
 echo random
-bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx random.subx  -o random
+bootstrap/bootstrap translate [01]*.subx apps/random.subx  -o random
 # don't run
 
 # Phases of the self-hosted SubX translator.
@@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ echo "== translating using the self-hosted translator"
 for n in `seq 1 12`
 do
   echo ex$n
-  ./translate_subx_emulated 000init.subx ex$n.subx
+  ./translate_subx_emulated 000init.subx apps/ex$n.subx
   diff ex$n a.elf
 done
 
@@ -191,7 +191,7 @@ done
 for app in factorial
 do
   echo $app
-  ./translate_subx_emulated [01]*.subx $app.subx
+  ./translate_subx_emulated [01]*.subx apps/$app.subx
   diff $app a.elf
 done
 
@@ -219,35 +219,35 @@ diff mu a.elf
 # Mu programs
 
 echo ex1.mu
-./translate_emulated ex1.mu
+./translate_emulated apps/ex1.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 42  # life, the universe and everything
 }
 
 echo ex2.mu
-./translate_emulated ex2.mu
+./translate_emulated apps/ex2.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 7
 }
 
 echo ex3.mu
-./translate_emulated ex3.mu
+./translate_emulated apps/ex3.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55
 }
 
 echo ex3.2.mu
-./translate_emulated ex3.2.mu
+./translate_emulated apps/ex3.2.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 55
 }
 
 echo factorial.mu
-./translate_emulated factorial.mu
+./translate_emulated apps/factorial.mu
 {
   bootstrap/bootstrap run a.elf  ||  ret=$?
   test $ret -eq 120